| Version 10 |
Version 9 |
| \PMlinkescapeword{constant} \PMlinkescapeword{order} |
\PMlinkescapeword{constant} \PMlinkescapeword{order} |
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| The linear differential equation |
The linear differential equation |
| \begin{align} |
\begin{align} |
| x^2\frac{d^2y}{dx^2}+x\frac{dy}{dx}+(x^2-p^2)y = 0, |
x^2\frac{d^2y}{dx^2}+x\frac{dy}{dx}+(x^2-p^2)y = 0, |
| \end{align} |
\end{align} |
| in which $p$ is a constant (non-negative if it is real), is called the {\em Bessel's equation}.\, We derive its general solution by trying the series form |
in which $p$ is a constant (non-negative if it is real), is called the {\em Bessel's equation}.\, We derive its general solution by trying the series form |
| \begin{align} |
\begin{align} |
| y = x^r\sum_{k=0}^\infty a_kx^k = \sum_{k=0}^\infty a_kx^{r+k}, |
y = x^r\sum_{k=0}^\infty a_kx^k = \sum_{k=0}^\infty a_kx^{r+k}, |
| \end{align} |
\end{align} |
| due to Frobenius.\, Since the parameter $r$ is indefinite, we may regard $a_0$ as distinct from 0. |
due to Frobenius.\, Since the parameter $r$ is indefinite, we may regard $a_0$ as distinct from 0. |
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| We substitute (2) and the derivatives of the series in (1): |
We substitute (2) and the derivatives of the series in (1): |
| $$ |
$$ |
| x^2\sum_{k=0}^\infty(r+k)(r+k-1)a_kx^{r+k-2}+ |
x^2\sum_{k=0}^\infty(r+k)(r+k-1)a_kx^{r+k-2}+ |
| x\sum_{k=0}^\infty(r+k)a_kx^{r+k-1}+ |
x\sum_{k=0}^\infty(r+k)a_kx^{r+k-1}+ |
| (x^2-p^2)\sum_{k=0}^\infty a_kx^{r+k} = 0. |
(x^2-p^2)\sum_{k=0}^\infty a_kx^{r+k} = 0. |
| $$ |
$$ |
| Thus the coefficients of the powers $x^r$, $x^{r+1}$, $x^{r+2}$ and so on must vanish, and we get the system of equations |
Thus the coefficients of the powers $x^r$, $x^{r+1}$, $x^{r+2}$ and so on must vanish, and we get the system of equations |
| \begin{align} |
\begin{align} |
| \begin{cases} |
\begin{cases} |
| [r^2-p^2]a_0 = 0,\\ |
[r^2-p^2]a_0 = 0,\\ |
| [(r+1)^2-p^2]a_1 = 0,\\ |
[(r+1)^2-p^2]a_1 = 0,\\ |
| [(r+2)^2-p^2]a_2+a_0 = 0,\\ |
[(r+2)^2-p^2]a_2+a_0 = 0,\\ |
| \qquad \qquad \ldots\\ |
\qquad \qquad \ldots\\ |
| [(r+k)^2-p^2]a_k+a_{k-2} = 0. |
[(r+k)^2-p^2]a_k+a_{k-2} = 0. |
| \end{cases} |
\end{cases} |
| \end{align} |
\end{align} |
| The last of those can be written |
The last of those can be written |
| $$(r+k-p)(r+k+p)a_k+a_{k-2} = 0.$$ |
$$(r+k-p)(r+k+p)a_k+a_{k-2} = 0.$$ |
| Because\, $a_0 \neq 0$,\, the first of those (the indicial equation) gives\, $r^2-p^2 = 0$,\, i.e. we have the roots |
Because\, $a_0 \neq 0$,\, the first of those (the indicial equation) gives\, $r^2-p^2 = 0$,\, i.e. we have the roots |
| $$r_1 = p,\,\, r_2 = -p.$$ |
$$r_1 = p,\,\, r_2 = -p.$$ |
| Let's first look the the solution of (1) with\, $r = p$;\, then\, $k(2p+k)a_k+a_{k-2} = 0$,\, and thus\, |
Let's first look the the solution of (1) with\, $r = p$;\, then\, $k(2p+k)a_k+a_{k-2} = 0$,\, and thus\, |
| $$a_k = -\frac{a_{k-2}}{k(2p+k).}$$ |
$$a_k = -\frac{a_{k-2}}{k(2p+k).}$$ |
| From the system (3) we can solve one by one each of the coefficients $a_1$, $a_2$, $\ldots$\, and express them with $a_0$ which remains arbitrary.\, Setting for $k$ the integer values we get |
From the system (3) we can solve one by one each of the coefficients $a_1$, $a_2$, $\ldots$\, and express them with $a_0$ which remains arbitrary.\, Setting for $k$ the integer values we get |
| \begin{align} |
\begin{align} |
| \begin{cases} |
\begin{cases} |
| a_1 = 0,\,\,a_3 = 0,\,\ldots,\, a_{2m-1} = 0;\\ |
a_1 = 0,\,\,a_3 = 0,\,\ldots,\, a_{2m-1} = 0;\\ |
| a_2 = -\frac{a_0}{2(2p+2)},\,\,a_4 = \frac{a_0}{2\cdot4(2p+2)(2p+4)},\,\ldots,\,\, |
a_2 = -\frac{a_0}{2(2p+2)},\,\,a_4 = \frac{a_0}{2\cdot4(2p+2)(2p+4)},\,\ldots,\,\, |
| a_{2m} = \frac{(-1)^ma_0}{2\cdot4\cdot6\cdots(2m)(2p+2)(2p+4)\ldots(2p+2m)} |
a_{2m} = \frac{(-1)^ma_0}{2\cdot4\cdot6\cdots(2m)(2p+2)(2p+4)\ldots(2p+2m)} |
| \end{cases} |
\end{cases} |
| \end{align} |
\end{align} |
| (where\, $m = 1,\,2,\,\ldots$). |
(where\, $m = 1,\,2,\,\ldots$). |
| Putting the obtained coefficients to (2) we get the particular solution |
Putting the obtained coefficients to (2) we get the particular solution |
| \begin{align} |
\begin{align} |
| y_1 := a_0x^p \left[1\!\!\frac{x^2}{2(2p\!+\!2)}\! |
y_1 := a_0x^p \left[1\!\!\frac{x^2}{2(2p\!+\!2)}\! |
| +\!\frac{x^4}{2\!\cdot\!4(2p\!+\!2)(2p\!+\!4)} |
+\!\frac{x^4}{2\!\cdot\!4(2p\!+\!2)(2p\!+\!4)} |
| \!-\!\frac{x^6}{2\!\cdot\!4\!\cdot\!6(2p\!+\!2)(2p\!+\!4)(2p\!+\!6)}\!+-\ldots\right] |
\!-\!\frac{x^6}{2\!\cdot\!4\!\cdot\!6(2p\!+\!2)(2p\!+\!4)(2p\!+\!6)}\!+-\ldots\right] |
| \end{align} |
\end{align} |
|
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| In order to get the coefficients $a_k$ for the second root\, $r_2 = -p$\, we have to look after that |
In order to get the coefficients $a_k$ for the second root\, $r_2 = -p$\, we have to look after that |
| $$(r_2+k)^2-p^2 \neq 0,$$ |
$$(r_2+k)^2-p^2 \neq 0,$$ |
| or\, $r_2+k \neq p = r_1$.\, Therefore |
or\, $r_2+k \neq p = r_1$.\, Therefore |
| $$r_1-r_2 = 2p \neq k$$ |
$$r_1-r_2 = 2p \neq k$$ |
| where $k$ is a positive integer.\, Thus, when $p$ is not an integer and not an integer added by $\frac{1}{2}$, we get the second particular solution, gotten of (5) by replacing $p$ by $-p$: |
where $k$ is a positive integer.\, Thus, when $p$ is not an integer and not an integer added by $\frac{1}{2}$, we get the second particular solution, gotten of (5) by replacing $p$ by $-p$: |
| \begin{align} |
\begin{align} |
| y_2 := a_0x^{-p}\!\left[1 |
y_2 := a_0x^{-p}\!\left[1 |
| \!-\!\frac{x^2}{2(-2p\!+\!2)}\!+\!\frac{x^4}{2\!\cdot\!4(-2p\!+\!2)(-2p\!+\!4)} |
\!-\!\frac{x^2}{2(-2p\!+\!2)}\!+\!\frac{x^4}{2\!\cdot\!4(-2p\!+\!2)(-2p\!+\!4)} |
| \!-\!\frac{x^6}{2\!\cdot\!4\!\cdot\!6(-2p\!+\!2)(-2p\!+\!4)(-2p\!+\!6)}\!+-\ldots\right] |
\!-\!\frac{x^6}{2\!\cdot\!4\!\cdot\!6(-2p\!+\!2)(-2p\!+\!4)(-2p\!+\!6)}\!+-\ldots\right] |
| \end{align} |
\end{align} |
|
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| The power series of (5) and (6) converge for all values of $x$ and are linearly independent (the ratio $y_1/y_2$ tends to 0 as\, $x\to\infty$).\, With the appointed value |
The power series of (5) and (6) converge for all values of $x$ and are linearly independent (the ratio $y_1/y_2$ tends to 0 as\, $x\to\infty$).\, With the appointed value |
| $$a_0 = \frac{1}{2^p\,\Gamma(p+1)},$$ |
$$a_0 = \frac{1}{2^p\,\Gamma(p+1)},$$ |
| the solution $y_1$ is called the {\em Bessel function of the first kind and of order $p$} and denoted by $J_p$.\, The similar definition is set for the first kind Bessel function of an arbitrary order\, $p\in \mathbb{R}$ (and $\mathbb{C}$). |
the solution $y_1$ is called the {\em Bessel function of the first kind and of order $p$} and denoted by $J_p$.\, The similar definition is set for the first kind Bessel function of an arbitrary order\, $p\in \mathbb{R}$ (and $\mathbb{C}$). |
| For\, $p\notin \mathbb{Z}$\, the general solution of the Bessel's differential equation is thus |
For\, $p\notin \mathbb{Z}$\, the general solution of the Bessel's differential equation is thus |
| $$y := C_1J_p(x)+C_2J_{-p}(x),$$ |
$$y := C_1J_p(x)+C_2J_{-p}(x),$$ |
| where\, $J_{-p}(x) = y_2$\, with\, $a_0 = \frac{1}{2^{-p}\Gamma(-p+1)}$. |
where\, $J_{-p}(x) = y_2$\, with\, $a_0 = \frac{1}{2^{-p}\Gamma(-p+1)}$. |
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| The explicite expressions for $J_{\pm p}$ are |
The explicite expressions for $J_{\pm p}$ are |
| \begin{align} |
\begin{align} |
| J_{\pm p}(x) = |
J_{\pm p}(x) = |
| \sum_{m=0}^\infty |
\sum_{m=0}^\infty |
| \frac{(-1)^m}{m!\,\Gamma(m\pm p+1)}\left(\frac{x}{2}\right)^{2m\pm p}, |
\frac{(-1)^m}{m!\,\Gamma(m\pm p+1)}\left(\frac{x}{2}\right)^{2m\pm p}, |
| \end{align} |
\end{align} |
| which are obtained from (5) and (6) by using the last \PMlinkescapetext{formula} for gamma function. |
which are obtained from (5) and (6) by using the last \PMlinkescapetext{formula} for gamma function. |
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| E.g. when\, $p = \frac{1}{2}$\, the series in (5) gets the form |
E.g. when\, $p = \frac{1}{2}$\, the series in (5) gets the form |
| $$y_1 = \frac{x^{\frac{1}{2}}}{\sqrt{2}\,\Gamma(\frac{3}{2})}\left[1\!-\!\frac{x^2}{2\!\cdot\!3}\!+\!\frac{x^4}{2\!\cdot\!4\!\cdot\!3\!\cdot\!5}\!-\!\frac{x^6}{2\!\cdot\!4\cdot\!6\!\cdot\!3\!\cdot\!5\!\cdot\!7}\!+-\ldots\right] = |
$$y_1 = \frac{x^{\frac{1}{2}}}{\sqrt{2}\,\Gamma(\frac{3}{2})}\left[1\!-\!\frac{x^2}{2\!\cdot\!3}\!+\!\frac{x^4}{2\!\cdot\!4\!\cdot\!3\!\cdot\!5}\!-\!\frac{x^6}{2\!\cdot\!4\cdot\!6\!\cdot\!3\!\cdot\!5\!\cdot\!7}\!+-\ldots\right] = |
| \sqrt{\frac{2}{\pi x}}\left(x\!-\!\frac{x^3}{3!}\!+\!\frac{x^5}{5!}\!-+\ldots\right).$$ |
\sqrt{\frac{2}{\pi x}}\left(x\!-\!\frac{x^3}{3!}\!+\!\frac{x^5}{5!}\!-+\ldots\right).$$ |
| Thus we get |
Thus we get |
| $$J_{\frac{1}{2}}(x) = \sqrt{\frac{2}{\pi x}}\sin{x};$$ |
$$J_{\frac{1}{2}}(x) = \sqrt{\frac{2}{\pi x}}\sin{x};$$ |
| analogically (6) yields |
analogically (6) yields |
| $$J_{-\frac{1}{2}}(x) = \sqrt{\frac{2}{\pi x}}\cos{x},$$ |
$$J_{-\frac{1}{2}}(x) = \sqrt{\frac{2}{\pi x}}\cos{x},$$ |
| and the general solution of the equation (1) for\, $p = \frac{1}{2}$\, is |
and the general solution of the equation (1) for\, $p = \frac{1}{2}$\, is |
| $$y := C_1J_{\frac{1}{2}}(x)+C_2J_{-\frac{1}{2}}(x).$$ |
$$y := C_1J_{\frac{1}{2}}(x)+C_2J_{-\frac{1}{2}}(x).$$ |
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| In the case that $p$ is a non-negative integer $n$, the ``+'' case of (7) gives the solution |
In the case that $p$ is a non-negative integer $n$, the ``+'' case of (7) gives the solution |
| $$J_{n}(x) = |
$$J_{n}(x) = |
| \sum_{m=0}^\infty |
\sum_{m=0}^\infty |
| \frac{(-1)^m}{m!\,(m+n)!}\left(\frac{x}{2}\right)^{2m+n}, |
\frac{(-1)^m}{m!\,(m+n)!}\left(\frac{x}{2}\right)^{2m+n}, |
| $$ |
$$ |
| but for\, $p = -n$\, the expression of $J_{-n}(x)$ is $(-1)^nJ_n(x)$, i.e. linearly dependent of $J_n(x)$.\, It can be shown that the other solution of (1) ought to be searched in the form\, |
but for\, $p = -n$\, the expression of $J_{-n}(x)$ is $(-1)^nJ_n(x)$, i.e. linearly dependent of $J_n(x)$.\, It can be shown that the other solution of (1) ought to be searched in the form\, |
| $y = K_n(x) = J_n(x)\ln{x}+x^{-n}\sum_{k=0}^\infty b_kx^k$.\, Then the general solution is\, $y := C_1J_n(x)+C_2K_n(x)$.\\ |
$y = K_n(x) = J_n(x)\ln{x}+x^{-n}\sum_{k=0}^\infty b_kx^k$.\, Then the general solution is\, $y := C_1J_n(x)+C_2K_n(x)$.\\ |
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| \textbf{Other formulae} |
\textbf{Other formulae} |
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| The first kind Bessel functions of integer order have the generating function $F$: |
The first kind Bessel functions of integer order have the generating function $F$: |
| \begin{align} |
\begin{align} |
| F(z,\,t) = e^{\frac{z}{2}(t-\frac{1}{t})} |
F(z,\,t) = e^{\frac{z}{2}(t-\frac{1}{t})} |
| = \sum_{n=-\infty}^\infty J_n(z)t^n |
= \sum_{n=-\infty}^\infty J_n(z)t^n |
| \end{align} |
\end{align} |
| This function has an essential singularity at\, $t = 0$\, but is analytic elsewhere in $\mathbb{C}$; thus $F$ has the Laurent expansion in that point.\, Let us prove (8) by using the general expression |
This function has an essential singularity at\, $t = 0$\, but is analytic elsewhere in $\mathbb{C}$; thus $F$ has the Laurent expansion in that point.\, Let us prove (8) by using the general expression |
| $$c_n = \frac{1}{2\pi i}\oint_{\gamma} \frac{f(t)}{(t-a)^{n+1}}\,dt$$ |
$$c_n = \frac{1}{2\pi i}\oint_{\gamma} \frac{f(t)}{(t-a)^{n+1}}\,dt$$ |
| of the coefficients of Laurent series.\, Setting to this\, $a := 0$,\, |
of the coefficients of Laurent series.\, Setting to this\, $a := 0$,\, |
| $f(t) := e^{\frac{z}{2}(t-\frac{1}{t})}$,\, $\zeta := \frac{zt}{2}$\, gives |
$f(t) := e^{\frac{z}{2}(t-\frac{1}{t})}$,\, $\zeta := \frac{zt}{2}$\, gives |
| $$c_n = \frac{1}{2\pi i} |
$$c_n = \frac{1}{2\pi i} |
| \oint_\gamma\frac{e^{\frac{zt}{2}}e^{-\frac{z}{2t}}}{t^{n+1}}\,dt = |
\oint_\gamma\frac{e^{\frac{zt}{2}}e^{-\frac{z}{2t}}}{t^{n+1}}\,dt = |
| \frac{1}{2\pi i}\left(\frac{z}{2}\right)^n\! |
\frac{1}{2\pi i}\left(\frac{z}{2}\right)^n\! |
| \oint_\delta\frac{e^\zeta e^{-\frac{z^2}{4\zeta}}}{\zeta^{n+1}}\,d\zeta = |
\oint_\delta\frac{e^\zeta e^{-\frac{z^2}{4\zeta}}}{\zeta^{n+1}}\,d\zeta = |
| \sum_{m=0}^\infty\frac{(-1)^m}{m!}\left(\frac{z}{2}\right)^{2m+n}\! |
\sum_{m=0}^\infty\frac{(-1)^m}{m!}\left(\frac{z}{2}\right)^{2m+n}\! |
| \frac{1}{2\pi i}\oint_\delta \zeta^{-m-n-1}e^\zeta\,d\zeta.$$ |
\frac{1}{2\pi i}\oint_\delta \zeta^{-m-n-1}e^\zeta\,d\zeta.$$ |
| The paths $\gamma$ and $\delta$ go once round the origin anticlockwise in the $t$-plane and $\zeta$-plane, respectively.\, Since the residue of $\zeta^{-m-n-1}e^\zeta$ in the origin is\, $\frac{1}{(m+n)!} = \frac{1}{\Gamma(m+n+1)}$,\, the \PMlinkname{residue theorem}{CauchyResidueTheorem} gives |
The paths $\gamma$ and $\delta$ go once round the origin anticlockwise in the $t$-plane and $\zeta$-plane, respectively.\, Since the residue of $\zeta^{-m-n-1}e^\zeta$ in the origin is\, $\frac{1}{(m+n)!} = \frac{1}{\Gamma(m+n+1)}$,\, the \PMlinkname{residue theorem}{CauchyResidueTheorem} gives |
| $$c_n = \sum_{m=0}^\infty |
$$c_n = \sum_{m=0}^\infty |
| \frac{(-1)^m}{m!\Gamma(m+n+1)}\left(\frac{z}{2}\right)^{2m+n} = J_n(z).$$ |
\frac{(-1)^m}{m!\Gamma(m+n+1)}\left(\frac{z}{2}\right)^{2m+n} = J_n(z).$$ |
| This \PMlinkescapetext{means} that $F$ has the Laurent expansion (8). |
This \PMlinkescapetext{means} that $F$ has the Laurent expansion (8). |
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| By using the generating function, one can easily derive other formulae, e.g. |
By using the generating function, one can easily derive other formulae, e.g. |
| the \PMlinkescapetext{integral representation} of the Bessel functions of integer order: |
the \PMlinkescapetext{integral representation} of the Bessel functions of integer order: |
| $$J_n(z) = \frac{1}{\pi}\int_0^\pi\cos(n\varphi-z\sin{\varphi})\,d\varphi$$ |
$$J_n(z) = \frac{1}{\pi}\int_0^\pi\cos(n\varphi-z\sin{\varphi})\,d\varphi$$ |
| Also one can obtain the addition formula |
Also one can obtain the addition formula |
| $$J_n(x+y) = \sum_{\nu=-\infty}^{\infty}J_\nu(x)J_{n-\nu}(y)$$ |
$$J_n(x+y) = \sum_{\nu=-\infty}^{\infty}J_\nu(x)J_{n-\nu}(y)$$ |
| and the series \PMlinkescapetext{representations} of cosine and sine: |
and the series \PMlinkescapetext{representations} of cosine and sine: |
| $$\cos{z} = J_0(z)-2J_2(z)+2J_4(z)-+\ldots$$ |
$$\cos{z} = J_0(z)-2J_2(z)+2J_4(z)-+\ldots$$ |
| $$\sin{z} = 2J_1(z)-2J_3(z)+2J_5(z)-+\ldots$$ |
$$\sin{z} = 2J_1(z)-2J_3(z)+2J_5(z)-+\ldots$$ |
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| \begin{thebibliography}{9} |
\begin{thebibliography}{9} |
| \bibitem{NP}{\sc N. Piskunov:} {\em Diferentsiaal- ja integraalarvutus k\~{o}rgematele tehnilistele \~{o}ppeasutustele}.\, Kirjastus Valgus, Tallinn (1966). |
\bibitem{NP}{\sc N. Piskunov:} {\em Diferentsiaal- ja integraalarvutus k\~{o}rgematele tehnilistele \~{o}ppeasutustele}.\, Kirjastus Valgus, Tallinn (1966). |
| \bibitem{KK}{\sc K. Kurki-Suonio:} {\em Matemaattiset apuneuvot}.\, Limes r.y., Helsinki (1966). |
\bibitem{KK}{\sc K. Kurki-Suonio:} {\em Matemaattiset apuneuvot}.\, Limes r.y., Helsinki (1966). |
| \end{thebibliography} |
\end{thebibliography} |
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